Molecular characterization of mitochondrial Amerindian haplogroups and the amelogenin gene in human ancient DNA from three archaeological sites in Lambayeque - Peru.

Important pre-Inca civilizations, known by their great political and religious structures, inhabited the northern coast of Peru. Archeological and anthropological studies have shown that people from these villages have hierarchical strata, but the genetic structure has been poorly studied. Here, we aimed to perform a molecular characterization of the Amerindian maternal lineages and the amelogenin gene in skeletons collected from three archeological sites in Lambayeque. Ancient DNA (aDNA) samples were analyzed with conventional PCR to assess the nine-base pair (9 bp) deletion corresponding to mitochondrial haplogroup B and the identification of haplogroups A, C, and D were obtained with PCR-RFLP experiments. The sex was characterized via amplification of the AMEL(X/Y) locus. Haplogroup frequencies were compared with available data from other ancient and modern civilizations from the Peruvian coast and highlands using statistical methods. Our results showed that haplogroup C had the highest frequency, while haplogroup B showed variable diversity in the analyzed populations. The meta-analysis revealed a positive correlation among some coastal villages. We concluded that ancient populations analyzed in our study showed the presence of four Amerindian mitochondrial haplogroups, which is consistent with previous studies.

Perspectiva clínica sobre el tratamiento antihipertensivo en adultos con hipertensión grado 1 y riesgo cardiovascular bajo a moderado: consulta internacional de expertos

[RESUMEN]. La hipertensión arterial es el principal factor de riesgo de la carga global de las enfermedades. Una pregunta en debate es si la hipertensión arterial grado 1 (140–159/90–99 mm Hg) con riesgo cardiovascular (RCV) total bajo (mortalidad cardiovascular < 1% a los 10 años) a moderado (mortalidad cardiovascular > 1% y < 5% a los 10 años) debe ser tratada con agentes antihipertensivos. Un proceso de consulta virtual internacional fue realizado para resumir las opiniones de los expertos seleccionados. Después del análisis holístico de todos los elementos epidemiológicos, clínicos, psicosociales y de salud pública, este proceso de consulta llegó al siguiente consenso para adultos hipertensos < 80 años de edad: 1) La interrogante, de si el tratamiento medicamentoso en la hipertensión grado 1 debe ser precedido por un periodo de algunas semanas o meses, durante el cual solo se recomienden medidas sobre el estilo de vida no está basada en evidencia, pero el consenso de opinión es reservar un periodo para solo cambios en el estilo de vida únicamente en los pacientes con hipertensión grado 1 “aislada” (hipertensión grado 1 no complicada con RCV total absoluto bajo, y sin otros factores de RCV mayores ni modificadores del riesgo). 2) El inicio del tratamiento antihipertensivo medicamentoso en pacientes con hipertensión grado 1 y RCV absoluto moderado no debe demorarse. 3) Los hombres ≥ 55 años y las mujeres ≥ 60 años con hipertensión grado 1 no complicada deben ser automáticamente clasificados dentro de la categoría de RCV total absoluto moderado, incluso en ausencia de otros factores de riesgo mayores y modificadores del riesgo. 4) Las estatinas deben tenerse en cuenta junto con la terapia antihipertensiva, independientemente de los valores de colesterol, en pacientes con hipertensión grado 1 y RCV moderado.

[ABSTRACT]. Hypertension is a leading risk factor for disease burden globally. An unresolved question is whether grade 1 hypertension (140-159/90-99 mmHg) with low (cardiovascular mortality < 1% at 10 years) to moderate (cardiovascular mortality > 1% and < 5% at 10 years) absolute total cardiovascular risk (CVR) should be treated with antihypertensive agents. A virtual international consultation process was undertaken to summarize the opinions of select experts. After holistic analysis of all epidemiological, clinical, psychosocial, and public health elements, this consultation process reached the following consensus in hypertensive adults aged < 80 years: (1) The question of whether drug treatment in grade 1 should be preceded by a period of some weeks or months during which only life style measures are recommended cannot be evidence based, but the consensus opinion is to have a period of lifestyle alone reserved only to patients with grade 1 “isolated” hypertension (grade 1 uncomplicated hypertension with low absolute total CVR, and without other major CVR factors and risk modifiers). (2)The initiation of antihypertensive drug therapy in grade 1 hypertension with moderate absolute total CVR should not be delayed. (3) Men ≥ 55 years and women ≥ 60 years with uncomplicated grade1 hypertension should automatically be classified within the moderate absolute total CVR category, even in the absence of other major CVR factors and risk modifiers. (4) Statins should be considered along with blood-pressure lowering therapy, irrespective of cholesterol levels, in patients with grade 1 hypertensive with moderate CVR.

Efecto de la administración de espironolactona sobre la pérdida de podocitos y la progresión de la nefropatía diabética experimental / Effects of spironolactone administration on the podocytes loss and progression of experimental diabetic nephropathy

Objetivos. Evaluar el efecto de espironolactona (SPL) sobre la pérdida de los podocitos durante la progresión de la nefropatía diabética (ND) experimental. Materiales y métodos. Aleatoriamente un grupo de ratas macho Holtzman recibieron estreptozotocina (grupo diabético) o citrato buffer (grupo control). Las ratas diabéticas fueron tratadas con SPL (50 mg/kg/día). El área glomerular y la celularidad fueron evaluadas por métodos histomorfométricos. La lesión y pérdida de podocitos fue evaluada por la expresión de desmina y Wt-1, respectivamente. La expresión génica del TGF-β1 se evaluó mediante RT-PCR. Resultados. Los niveles de glucosa, el área glomerular, la expansión mesangial y el contenido de colágeno se incrementaron significativamente en las ratas diabéticas. La administración de SPL previno estos cambios sin modificar los niveles de glucosa. La inmunotinción para Wt-1 se redujo significativamente, mientras que la inmunotinción para desmina se incrementó drásticamente en las ratas diabéticas. El tratamiento con SPL previno el incremento de expresión de desmina y la pérdida de expresión de Wt-1. Asimismo, la administración de SPL previno el incremento de la expresión del mRNA del TGF-β1 en las ratas diabéticas. Conclusiones. El tratamiento con SPL, a través de efectos glucosa independientes, atenúa la perdida de podocitos y la progresión de los cambios morfológicos de la ND. Los presentes resultados sugieren que estos efectos son mediados, al menos en parte, por la inhibición de la la expresión del mRNA del TGF-β1.

Objectives. Evaluate the effect of spironolactone (SPL) on the loss of podocytes during the progression of experimental diabetic nephropathy (DN). Materials and methods. A group of male Holtzman rats randomly received streptozotocin (diabetic group) or a buffer citrate (control group). Diabetic rats were treated with SPL (50 mg/kg/day). The glomerular area and the cellularity were evaluated by histomorphometric methods. The injury and loss of podocytes was assessed by desmin expression and Wt-1, respectively. The gene expression of TGF-β1 was assessed by RT-PCR. Results. Glucose levels, the glomerular area, the mesangial expansion and collagen content increased significantly in diabetic rats. The administration of SPL prevented these changes without changing glucose levels. Immunostain for Wt-1 decreased significantly while immunostain for desmin increased dramatically in diabetic rats. Treatment with SPL prevented the increase of desmin expression and the loss of Wt-1 expression. Furthermore, the administration of SPL prevented the increase of TGF-β1 mRNA expression in diabetic rats. Conclusions. Treatment with SPL, through independent glucose effects, reduces the loss of podocytes and the progression of DN morphological changes. These results suggest that these effects are mediated, at least in part, by the inhibition of TGF-β1 mRNA expression.

[Effects of spironolactone administration on the podocytes loss and progression of experimental diabetic nephropathy]. / Efecto de la administración de espironolactona sobre la pérdida de podocitos y la progresión de la nefropatía diabética experimental.

OBJECTIVES: Evaluate the effect of spironolactone (SPL) on the loss of podocytes during the progression of experimental diabetic nephropathy (DN). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A group of male Holtzman rats randomly received streptozotocin (diabetic group) or a buffer citrate (control group). Diabetic rats were treated with SPL (50 mg/kg/day). The glomerular area and the cellularity were evaluated by histomorphometric methods. The injury and loss of podocytes was assessed by desmin expression and Wt-1, respectively. The gene expression of TGF-ß1 was assessed by RT-PCR. RESULTS: Glucose levels, the glomerular area, the mesangial expansion and collagen content increased significantly in diabetic rats. The administration of SPL prevented these changes without changing glucose levels. Immunostain for Wt-1 decreased significantly while immunostain for desmin increased dramatically in diabetic rats. Treatment with SPL prevented the increase of desmin expression and the loss of Wt-1 expression. Furthermore, the administration of SPL prevented the increase of TGF-ß1 mRNA expression in diabetic rats. CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with SPL, through independent glucose effects, reduces the loss of podocytes and the progression of DN morphological changes. These results suggest that these effects are mediated, at least in part, by the inhibition of TGF-ß1 mRNA expression.

[Atorvastatin induced increase in homologous angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE2) mRNA is associated to decreased fibrosis and decreased left ventricular hypertrophy in a rat model of diabetic cardiomyopathy]. / El aumento de la expresión del ARNm de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina I homóloga (ECA-2) inducido por atorvastatina se asocia a menor fibrosis e hipertrofia ventricular izquierda en un modelo de cardiomiopatía diabética.

OBJECTIVES: This study has investigated the effect of atorvastatin on the progression of cardiac remodelling and ACE- 2 expression in diabetic myocardium in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Diabetes was induced in Holtzman rats with an intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. The animals were divided into 3 groups: (1) normal control rats, (2) diabetic rats and (3) diabetic rats treated orally with atorvastatin (50 mg/kg/day). After eight weeks of treatment, the hearts were removed for morphometric studies, collagen content assay and genetic expressions of ACE and ACE2 mRNA. RESULTS: Myocardial hypertrophy index and collagen deposition were increased in diabetic rats, but not in the treated-diabetic rats, without producing changes in cholesterol levels. Myocardial ACE mRNA levels were increased while ACE2 mRNA levels were decreased in diabetic rats. Atorvastatin administration attenuated overexpression of ACE mRNA and overexpression of ACE-2 mRNA in diabetic rats. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that atorvastatin, independently of its cholesterol-lowering capacity, lowers the ACE/ACE2 ratio to normal values and attenuates the development of adverse remodeling in the diabetic heart.

El aumento de la expresión del ARNm de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina I homóloga (ECA-2) inducido por atorvastatina se asocia a menor fibrosis e hipertrofia ventricular izquierda en un modelo de cardiomiopatía diabética / Atorvastatin induced increase in homologous angiotensin i converting enzyme (ACE2) mRNA is associated to decreased fibrosis and decreased left ventricular hypertrophy in a rat model of diabetic cardiomyopathy

Objetivos. Evaluar el efecto de atorvastatina sobre la progresión del remodelado cardiaco y la expresión de ECA-2 en el miocardio de ratas diabéticas. Materiales y métodos. La diabetes fue inducida en ratas Holtzman con una inyección intraperitoneal de estreptozotocina. Los animales fueron divididos en tres grupos: (1) ratas control, (2) ratas diabéticas y (3) ratas diabéticas tratadas con atorvastatina (50 mg/kg/día). Después de ocho semanas de tratamiento, los corazones fueron extraídos para el análisis morfométrico, la cuantificación de colágeno y la determinación de los niveles de ARNm de ECA y ECA-2. Resultados. El índice de hipertrofia ventricular y el depósito de colágeno se incrementaron significativamente en las ratas diabéticas. La administración de atorvastatina previno estos cambios sin modificar los niveles de colesterol. La hiperglicemia produjo un incremento significativo en los niveles del ARNm de ECA y una marcada disminución en la expresión de ECA-2 en el miocardio de ratas diabéticas. La administración de atorvastatina indujo la expresión del ARNm de ECA-2 e inhibió la sobreexpresión del ARNm de ECA en el miocardio de las ratas diabéticas. Conclusiones. Nuestros resultados indican que la atorvastatina, independientemente de su capacidad para disminuir el colesterol, normaliza la relación de la expresión de ECA/ECA-2 y atenúa el desarrollo del remodelado adverso en el corazón diabético.

Objectives. This study has investigated the effect of atorvastatin on the progression of cardiac remodelling and ACE- 2 expression in diabetic myocardium in rats. Materials and Methods. Diabetes was induced in Holtzman rats with an intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. The animals were divided into 3 groups: (1) normal control rats, (2) diabetic rats and (3) diabetic rats treated orally with atorvastatin (50 mg/kg/day). After eight weeks of treatment, the hearts were removed for morphometric studies, collagen content assay and genetic expressions of ACE and ACE2 mRNA. Results. Myocardial hypertrophy index and collagen deposition were increased in diabetic rats, but not in the treated-diabetic rats, without producing changes in cholesterol levels. Myocardial ACE mRNA levels were increased while ACE2 mRNA levels were decreased in diabetic rats. Atorvastatin administration attenuated overexpression of ACE mRNA and overexpression of ACE-2 mRNA in diabetic rats. Conclusions. Our results indicate that atorvastatin, independently of its cholesterol-lowering capacity, lowers the ACE/ACE2 ratio to normal values and attenuates the development of adverse remodeling in the diabetic heart.

Polimorfismos del cromosoma Y humano en poblaciones de la región norte del Perú

Se evaluaron los loci Y-específicos DYS287, DYS199 y DYS390 en un total de 105 individuos, en cuatro poblaciones del norte del Perú. Sólo un individuo presentó el linaje YAP+/C, de probable origen africano. La frecuencia de cromosomas Y Amerindios, indicado por el linaje YAP-/T, fue mayor en la población Aguaruna de Yamayakat (97%), disminuyendo en mestizos de Moche (73%), Santiago de Chuco (53%) y Trujillo (33%); por otro lado, el grado de mestizaje fue mayor en las poblaciones nor-occidentales. Los haplótipos más frecuentes fueron YAP-/C/24 en Trujillo (47%) y YAP-/T/24 en Santiago de Chuco (23%). La diversidad haplotípica en Santiago de Chuco (0,881) fue mayor que en Trujillo (0,752). Es de resaltar la considerable proporción de cromosomas Y Amerindios en las poblaciones peruanas a pesar de más de 500 años de influencia hispánica y otras culturas.

The non-recombination region of the human Y chromosome is a very informative genetic tool for unraveling the history of human populations. 105 individuals from four northern populations of Peru, were genotyped for three Y-specific loci: DYS287, DYS199 and DYS390. Only one individual carried the YAP+/C lineage, more probably of African origin. The highest frequency of Amerindian Y chromosomes, represented by the YAP-/T lineage, was found in the Aguaruna population of Yamayakat (97%), decreasing gradually in the mestizo population of Moche (73%), Santiago de Chuco (53%) and Trujillo (33%); on the other hand, the admixture level was higher in north-western populations. The most frequent haplotypes were YAP-/C/24 in Trujillo (47%) and YAP-/T/24 in Santiago de Chuco (23%). The haplotype diversity was higher in Santiago de Chuco (0,881) than in Trujillo (0,752). It stands out in the proportions of Amerindian Y chromosomes within Peruvian populations in spite of more than 500 years of influence of Hispanic and other cultures.

HLA class II diversity in seven Amerindian populations. Clues about the origins of the Aché.

The study of the HLA variability of Native American populations revealed several alleles specific to one or more of the Latin American indigenous populations. The analysis of Amerindian groups distributed all over the continent might inform about the area of origin and the dispersal of these alleles and shed light on the evolution of this remarkable polymorphism. Moreover, HLA alleles and haplotypes are excellent markers to understand the genetic relationships between populations. For these reasons, we characterized the HLA class II polymorphism in seven South American Amerindian populations and compared the results with those previously reported for other Amerindian groups. The Guarani-Kaiowá (n = 160) and Guarani-Nandeva (n = 87) were from the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul, the Guarani-M'byá (n = 93) and Kaingang (n = 235) from Paraná state, the Aché (n = 89) from eastern Paraguay, the Quechua (n = 44) from Andean Peru. From Amazonia, a heterogeneous group was analyzed (n = 45). The most frequent alleles and haplotypes are common also in other Amerindian populations. Each HLA-DRB1 allele was typically found in combination with just one DQA1-DQB1 haplotype, most likely as a result of some form of random genetic drift and reduced gene flow from non-Amerindians. The frequency distribution differed significantly among all populations, although differences were less pronounced between the Guarani subgroups. Marker alleles allowed an estimate of European and sub-Saharan African gene flow into these populations: Quechua 23%, Guarani-Nandeva 14%, Kaingang 7%, Guarani-M'byá 4%, Guarani-Kaiowá, Amazonia, and Aché 0%. Interestingly, the DRB1*1413 allele, previously found only among the Guarani-M'byá (frequency 15%), appeared in the Aché (8%). The relationship of the Aché to other Amerindian populations is unclear, and this finding reveals a link with the Guarani. On the basis of genetic distance and the HLA allele/haplotype set, we propose that the Aché are differentiated Tupi-Guarani group, most closely related to the Guarani-M'byá.

Mitochondrial genome diversity of Native Americans supports a single early entry of founder populations into America.

There is general agreement that the Native American founder populations migrated from Asia into America through Beringia sometime during the Pleistocene, but the hypotheses concerning the ages and the number of these migrations and the size of the ancestral populations are surrounded by controversy. DNA sequence variations of several regions of the genome of Native Americans, especially in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region, have been studied as a tool to help answer these questions. However, the small number of nucleotides studied and the nonclocklike rate of mtDNA control-region evolution impose several limitations to these results. Here we provide the sequence analysis of a continuous region of 8.8 kb of the mtDNA outside the D-loop for 40 individuals, 30 of whom are Native Americans whose mtDNA belongs to the four founder haplogroups. Haplogroups A, B, and C form monophyletic clades, but the five haplogroup D sequences have unstable positions and usually do not group together. The high degree of similarity in the nucleotide diversity and time of differentiation (i.e., approximately 21,000 years before present) of these four haplogroups support a common origin for these sequences and suggest that the populations who harbor them may also have a common history. Additional evidence supports the idea that this age of differentiation coincides with the process of colonization of the New World and supports the hypothesis of a single and early entry of the ancestral Asian population into the Americas.

Genetic diversity in an Andean population from Peru and regional migration patterns of Amerindians in South America: data from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA.

The genetic variability of a Quechua-speaking Andean population from Peru was examined on the basis of four Y chromosome markers and restriction sites that define the Amerindian mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups. Forty-nine out of 52 (90.4%) individuals had mtDNA which belonged to one of the four common Amerindian haplogroups, with 54% of the samples belonging to haplogroup B. Among 25 males, 12 had an Amerindian Y chromosome, which exists as four haplotypes defined on the basis of the DYS287, DYS199, DYS392 and DYS19 markers, three of which are shared by Amazonian Amerindians. Thus, there is a clear directionality of marriages, with an estimated genetic admixture with non-Amerindians that is 9 times lower for mtDNA than for Y chromosome DNA. The comparison of mtDNA of Andean Amerindians with that of people from other regions of South America in a total of 1,086 individuals demonstrates a geographical pattern, with a decreasing frequency of A and C haplotypes and increasing frequency of the D haplotype from the north of the Amazon River to the south of the Amazon River, reaching the lowest and the highest frequencies, respectively, in the more southern populations of Chile and Argentina. Conversely, the highest and lowest frequencies of the haplogroup B are found, respectively, in the Andean and the North Amazon regions, and it is absent from some southern populations, suggesting that haplotypes A, C and D, and haplotype B may have been dispersed by two different migratory routes within the continent.

Ecorcardiografia de estres mediante digitalizacion de imagenes offline: desarrollo de una modalidad tecnologíca de alcance nacional

Los avances en el procedimiento digital, diseño de sistema software de aplicación permiten una integracion total de la tecnologia de ecocardiografia digital dentro del sistema de ultrasonido pero accesibles a todas las instituciones. Los objetivos consisten en proponer, validar e introducir una tecnología alternativa, de alcance nacional, con el fin de posibilitar la realizacion de ecocardiografia de estres, mediante digitalizacion de imagines offline El sistema se conformo con un ecocardiógrafo convencional, una tarjeta de captura de video, una computadora personal y un software digitalizador de imagines. Realizandose la comparación a doble ciego de las variables viabilidad miocardica y diagnostico de cardiopatia isquemica con la modalidad de eco estres online en 25 pacientes escogidos al azar, en el Hospital C.Q Hermanos Almejeiras en el periodo de diciembre de 1997 a mayo de 1998(AU)

Ecocardiografía de estrés mediante digitalización de imágenes offline. Desarrollo de una modalidad tecnológica de alcance nacional

Los avances en el procesamiento digital, diseño de sitemas y software de aplicación permite una integración total de la tecnología de ecocardiografía digital dentro del sistema de ultrasonido, pero accesible a todas las instituciones. Los objetivos consistentes en proponer, validar e introducir una tecnología alternativa que alcance nacional, con el fin de posibilitar la realización de ecocardiografía de estrés, mediante digitalización de imágenes, offline. El sistema se conformó con un ecocardiógrafo convencional una tarjeta de captura de video, una computadora personal y un software digitalizador de imágenes. Realizándose la comparación a doble ciego de las variableviabilidad miocárdica y diagnóstico de cardiopatia isquémica con la modalidad de eco estrés online, en 25 pacientes escogidos al azar en el Hopsital C.Q Hermanos Ameijeiras, en el período de diciembre de 1997 a mayo de 1998. Se comienza su introducción como nueva modalidad diagnóstica en el país demostrándose que la digitalización de imágenes offline constituye una alternativa tecnológica para la realización de la cardiopatía isquémica y determinación de la viabilidad miocárdica(AU)

Ethnic heterogeneity of the factor XIII Val34Leu polymorphism.

A polymorphism in the coagulation factor XIII gene (FXIII Val34Leu) has been recently described to confer protection for arterial and venous thrombosis and to predispose to intracerebral hemorrhage. At present it is known that FXIII Val34Leu is prevalent in Caucasians, but information upon its distribution in different ethnic groups is scarce. We investigated the prevalence of FXIIIVal34Leu in 450 unrelated subjects of four ethnic groups: 97 Caucasians (Brazilians of European descent and Portuguese), 149 Blacks (Brazilians, and Africans from Cameroon, Zaire and Angola), 40 Asians (Japanese descendents) and 164 Amerindians from South America. PCR amplification of exon 2 of FXIII gene followed by MseI restriction-digestion was employed to define the genotypes. FXIIIVal34Leu was detected in 44.3% of the Caucasians, in 28.9% of the Blacks, in 2.5% of the Asians and in 51.2% of the Amerindians. These data confirm that FXIII Val34Leu is highly prevalent in Caucasians and indicate that it is rarer in populations of African origin. The very high frequency among Amerindians indicates that FXIII Val34Leu is not absent among Asians, and since it has a very low prevalence in Japanese, a heterogeneity in its distribution in Asia may be inferred. Taken together, our data showed that FXIII Val34Leu exhibits a significant ethnic heterogeneity, a finding that is relevant for studies relating this polymorphism with thrombotic and bleeding disorders.

Diversity of the human Y chromosome of South American Amerindians: a comparison with blacks, whites, and Japanese from Brazil.

We defined the Y-chromosome haplotypes on the basis of six polymorphic sites: an Alu-element insertion (YAP), a single-base change (C-->T at DYS199), one trinucleotide repeat (DYS392) and three tetranucleotide repeats (DYS393, DYS390 and DYS19). Among 140 Y chromosomes from Whites, Blacks, Japanese and Amerindians we identified 67 different haplotypes, the majority of them population-specific; only seven haplotypes were shared by three different racial groups, mostly owing to admixture. Overall, three main lineages can be defined on the basis of the YAP/DYS199/DYS392 markers: (a) a predominant /-/C/10/13/22 (or) 23/ lineage, observed among all racial groups; (b) a/+/C/ lineage which predominates among Blacks (comprising mainly the sublineage /+/C/10/13/), although it is eventually found among Japanese and Whites; and (c) a /-/T/ lineage observed only among Amerindians (comprising mainly the sublineage /-/T/13/13/). The decreasing haplotype diversity of the three lineages agrees with the idea that the first is the most ancient, while the last is the more recent. The data also indicate that the YAP insertion occurred in a /-/C/10/13/ chromosome and the C-->T mutation occurred in a /-/C/13/13/ chromosome. Finally, the data suggest that at least two Y-chromosome lineages (/-/C/13/ and /-/T/13/) contributed to the early peopling of the Americas, and supports the hypothesis that /-/T/13/ could be derived from /-/C/13/ and that both haplotypes could be present in the ancestral populations that peopled the continent.

Blood polymorphisms and morphological variability in Brazilian Indians.

A total of 1,025 adults belonging to four Brazilian tribes were simulataneously studied for 12-16 anthropometric characteristics and 7-11 blood polymorphic loci. Several comparisons using both univariate and multivariate statistical techniques failed to show the negative correlation between these two sets of variables found by other workers. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.